D. M. Morens and A. S. Fauci, The 1918 influenza pandemic: insights for the 21st century, J Infect Dis, vol.195, issue.7, pp.1018-1046, 2007.

B. Hubert, L. Watier, P. Garnerin, and S. Richardson, Meningococcal disease and influenza-like syndrome: a new approach to an old question, J Infect Dis, vol.166, issue.3, pp.542-547, 1992.

J. A. Mccullers, Insights into the interaction between influenza virus and pneumococcus, Clin Microbiol Rev, vol.19, issue.3, pp.571-82, 2006.

J. S. Abramson, The pathogenesis of bacterial infections in infants and children: the role of viruses, Perspect Biol Med, vol.32, issue.1, pp.63-72, 1988.

P. S. Moore, J. Hierholzer, W. Dewitt, K. Gouan, D. Djore et al., Respiratory viruses and mycoplasma as cofactors for epidemic group a meningococcal meningitis, JAMA, vol.264, issue.10, pp.1271-1276, 1990.

M. A. Rameix-welti, M. L. Zarantonelli, D. Giorgini, C. Ruckly, M. Marasescu et al., Influenza a virus neuraminidase enhances meningococcal adhesion to epithelial cells through interaction with sialic acid-containing meningococcal capsules, Infect Immun, vol.77, issue.9, pp.3588-95, 2009.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00457564

J. M. Alonso, A. Guiyoule, M. L. Zarantonelli, F. Ramisse, R. Pires et al., A model of meningococcal bacteremia after respiratory superinfection in influenza a virus-infected mice, FEMS Microbiol Lett, vol.222, issue.1, pp.99-106, 2003.

C. Bellinghausen, G. G. Rohde, P. H. Savelkoul, E. F. Wouters, and F. R. Stassen, Viralbacterial interactions in the respiratory tract, J Gen Virol, vol.97, issue.12, pp.3089-102, 2016.

M. Ozen, K. Sandal, G. Dinleyici, and E. C. , Probiotics for the prevention of pediatric upper respiratory tract infections: a systematic review, Expert Opin Biol Ther, vol.15, issue.1, pp.9-20, 2015.

E. Guillemard, F. Tondu, F. Lacoin, and J. Schrezenmeir, Consumption of a fermented dairy product containing the probiotic lactobacillus casei DN114001 reduces the duration of respiratory infections in the elderly in a randomised controlled trial, Br J Nutr, vol.103, issue.1, pp.58-68, 2010.

G. Harata, F. He, N. Hiruta, M. Kawase, A. Kubota et al., Intranasal administration of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG protects mice from H1N1 influenza virus infection by regulating respiratory immune responses, Lett Appl Microbiol, vol.50, issue.6, pp.597-602, 2010.

N. Kechaou, F. Chain, J. J. Gratadoux, S. Blugeon, N. Bertho et al., Identification of one novel candidate probiotic lactobacillus plantarum strain active against influenza virus infection in mice by a large-scale screening, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.79, issue.5, pp.1491-1500, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01001569

Y. N. Lee, H. N. Youn, J. H. Kwon, D. H. Lee, J. K. Park et al., Sublingual administration of lactobacillus rhamnosus affects respiratory immune responses and facilitates protection against influenza virus infection in mice, Antivir Res, vol.98, issue.2, pp.284-90, 2013.

H. N. Youn, D. H. Lee, Y. N. Lee, J. K. Park, S. S. Yuk et al., Intranasal administration of live Lactobacillus species facilitates protection against influenza virus infection in mice, Antivir Res, vol.93, issue.1, pp.138-181, 2012.

N. Belkacem, N. Serafini, R. Wheeler, M. Derrien, L. Boucinha et al., Lactobacillus paracasei feeding improves immune control of influenza infection in mice, PLoS One, vol.12, issue.9, p.184976, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02013238

D. S. Kellogg, W. L. Peacock, W. E. Deacon, L. Brown, and D. I. Pirkle, Neisseria gonorrhoeae. I. Virulence genetically linked to clonal variation, J Bacteriol, vol.85, pp.1274-1283, 1963.

T. Guiddir, A. E. Deghmane, D. Giorgini, and M. K. Taha, Lipocalin 2 in cerebrospinal fluid as a marker of acute bacterial meningitis, BMC Infect Dis, vol.14, issue.1, p.276, 2014.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00996794

M. Szatanik, E. Hong, C. Ruckly, M. Ledroit, D. Giorgini et al., Experimental meningococcal sepsis in congenic transgenic mice expressing human transferrin, PLoS One, vol.6, issue.7, p.22210, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02084270

B. Shrum, R. V. Anantha, S. X. Xu, M. Donnelly, S. M. Haeryfar et al., A robust scoring system to evaluate sepsis severity in an animal model, BMC Res Notes, vol.7, p.233, 2014.

K. Wolterink, R. G. Kleinjan, A. Van-nimwegen, M. Bergen, I. De-bruijn et al., Pulmonary innate lymphoid cells are major producers of IL-5 and IL-13 in murine models of allergic asthma, Eur J Immunol, vol.42, issue.5, pp.1106-1122, 2012.

C. M. Smith, S. Sandrini, S. Datta, P. Freestone, S. Shafeeq et al., Respiratory syncytial virus increases the virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae by binding to penicillin binding protein 1a. A new paradigm in respiratory infection, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, vol.190, issue.2, pp.196-207, 2014.

A. Tada, H. Zelaya, P. Clua, S. Salva, S. Alvarez et al., Immunobiotic Lactobacillus strains reduce small intestinal injury induced by intraepithelial lymphocytes after toll-like receptor 3 activation, Inflamm Res, vol.65, issue.10, pp.771-83, 2016.

H. E. Ghoneim, P. G. Thomas, and J. A. Mccullers, Depletion of alveolar macrophages during influenza infection facilitates bacterial superinfections, J Immunol, vol.191, issue.3, pp.1250-1259, 2013.

X. Wang, D. Zhang, M. Sjolinder, Y. Wan, and H. Sjolinder, CD46 accelerates macrophage-mediated host susceptibility to meningococcal sepsis in a murine model, Eur J Immunol, vol.47, issue.1, pp.119-149, 2017.

P. Kanmani, P. Clua, M. G. Vizoso-pinto, C. Rodriguez, S. Alvarez et al., Respiratory commensal Bacteria Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum improves resistance of infant mice to respiratory syncytial virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae superinfection, Front Microbiol, vol.8, p.1613, 2017.

E. Vintini, J. Villena, S. Alvarez, and M. Medina, Administration of a probiotic associated with nasal vaccination with inactivated Lactococcus lactis-PppA induces effective protection against pneumoccocal infection in young mice, Clin Exp Immunol, vol.159, issue.3, pp.351-62, 2010.

S. Salva, J. Villena, and S. Alvarez, Immunomodulatory activity of Lactobacillus rhamnosus strains isolated from goat milk: impact on intestinal and respiratory infections, Int J Food Microbiol, vol.141, issue.1-2, pp.82-91, 2010.

L. Khailova, C. H. Baird, A. A. Rush, E. N. Mcnamee, and P. E. Wischmeyer, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG improves outcome in experimental pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia: potential role of regulatory T cells, Shock, vol.40, issue.6, pp.496-503, 2013.

L. Khailova, C. H. Baird, A. A. Rush, C. Barnes, and P. E. Wischmeyer, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG treatment improves intestinal permeability and modulates inflammatory response and homeostasis of spleen and colon in experimental model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia, Clin Nutr, vol.36, issue.6, pp.1549-57, 2016.

T. J. Schuijt, J. M. Lankelma, B. P. Scicluna, F. De-sousa-e-melo, J. J. Roelofs et al., The gut microbiota plays a protective role in the host defence against pneumococcal pneumonia, Gut, vol.65, issue.4, pp.575-583, 2016.

G. J. Jakab, G. A. Warr, and M. E. Knight, Pulmonary and systemic defenses against challenge with Staphylococcus aureus in mice with pneumonia due to influenza a virus, J Infect Dis, vol.140, issue.1, pp.105-113, 1979.

M. I. Mahmud, R. Jennings, and C. W. Potter, The infant rat as a model for assessment of the attenuation of human influenza viruses, J Med Microbiol, vol.12, issue.1, pp.43-54, 1979.

J. A. Mccullers and J. E. Rehg, Lethal synergism between influenza virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae: characterization of a mouse model and the role of platelet-activating factor receptor, J Infect Dis, vol.186, issue.3, pp.341-50, 2002.