M. Thomas, H. Godfray, A. Read, H. Van-den-berg, B. Tabashnik et al., Lessons from Agriculture for the Sustainable Management of Malaria Vectors, PLoS Medicine, vol.35, issue.7, p.1001262, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001262.g001

J. Kitau, R. Oxborough, P. Tungu, J. Matowo, R. Malima et al., Species Shifts in the Anopheles gambiae Complex: Do LLINs Successfully Control Anopheles arabiensis?, PLoS ONE, vol.374, issue.38, p.31481, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0031481.t004

G. Zhou, Y. Afrane, A. Vardo-zalik, H. Atieli, D. Zhong et al., Changing Patterns of Malaria Epidemiology between 2002 and 2010 in Western Kenya: The Fall and Rise of Malaria, PLoS ONE, vol.103, issue.5, p.20318, 2011.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0020318.t001

G. Gimonneau, J. Bouyer, S. Morand, N. Besansky, A. Diabate et al., A behavioral mechanism underlying ecological divergence in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae, Behavioral Ecology, vol.21, issue.5, pp.1087-1092, 2010.
DOI : 10.1093/beheco/arq114

Y. Lee, A. Cornel, C. Meneses, A. Fofana, A. Andrianarivo et al., Ecological and genetic relationships of the Forest-M form among chromosomal and molecular forms of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto, Malaria Journal, vol.8, issue.1, p.75, 2009.
DOI : 10.1186/1475-2875-8-75

C. Costantini, D. Ayala, W. Guelbeogo, M. Pombi, C. Some et al., Living at the edge: biogeographic patterns of habitat segregation conform to speciation by niche expansion in Anopheles gambiae, BMC Ecology, vol.9, issue.1, p.16, 2009.
DOI : 10.1186/1472-6785-9-16

A. Della-torre, C. Fanello, M. Akogbeto, J. Dossou-yovo, G. Favia et al., Molecular evidence of incipient speciation within Anopheles gambiae s.s. in West Africa, Insect Molecular Biology, vol.40, issue.Suppl.1, pp.9-18, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1365-2583.2001.00235.x

J. Crawford and B. Lazzaro, The Demographic Histories of the M and S Molecular Forms of Anopheles gambiae s.s., Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol.27, issue.8, pp.1739-1744, 2010.
DOI : 10.1093/molbev/msq070

A. Della-torre, Z. Tu, and V. Petrarca, On the distribution and genetic differentiation of Anopheles gambiae s.s. molecular forms, Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, vol.35, issue.7, pp.755-769, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ibmb.2005.02.006

T. Lehmann and A. Diabate, The molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae: A phenotypic perspective, Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol.8, issue.5, pp.737-746, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.meegid.2008.06.003

F. Simard, D. Ayala, G. Kamdem, M. Pombi, J. Etouna et al., Ecological niche partitioning between Anopheles gambiae molecular forms in Cameroon: the ecological side of speciation, BMC Ecology, vol.9, issue.1, p.17, 2009.
DOI : 10.1186/1472-6785-9-17

B. Caputo, F. Santolamazza, J. Vicente, D. Nwakanma, M. Jawara et al., The ???Far-West??? of Anopheles gambiae Molecular Forms, PLoS ONE, vol.75, issue.2, p.16415, 2011.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0016415.s005

M. Lawniczak, S. Emrich, A. Holloway, A. Regier, M. Olson et al., Widespread Divergence Between Incipient Anopheles gambiae Species Revealed by Whole Genome Sequences, Science, vol.330, issue.6003, pp.512-514, 2010.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1195755

T. Turner, M. Hahn, and S. Nuzhdin, Genomic Islands of Speciation in Anopheles gambiae, PLoS Biology, vol.20, issue.9, p.285, 2005.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030285.st001

K. Reidenbach, D. Neafsey, C. Costantini, N. Sagnon, F. Simard et al., Patterns of Genomic Differentiation between Ecologically Differentiated M and S Forms of Anopheles gambiae in West and Central Africa, Genome Biology and Evolution, vol.4, issue.12, pp.1202-1212, 2012.
DOI : 10.1093/gbe/evs095

A. Diabate, R. Dabire, N. Millogo, and T. Lehmann, Evaluating the Effect of Postmating Isolation Between Molecular Forms of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae), Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.44, issue.1, pp.60-64, 2007.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/41.5.60

E. Oliveira, P. Salgueiro, K. Palsson, J. Vicente, A. Arez et al., High Levels of Hybridization between Molecular Forms of Anopheles gambiae from Guinea Bissau, Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.45, issue.6, pp.1057-1063, 2008.
DOI : 10.1093/jmedent/45.6.1057

C. Marsden, Y. Lee, C. Nieman, M. Sanford, J. Dinis et al., Asymmetric introgression between the M and S forms of the malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae, maintains divergence despite extensive hybridization, Molecular Ecology, vol.14, issue.23, pp.4983-4994, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05339.x

M. Riehle, W. Guelbeogo, A. Gneme, K. Eiglmeier, I. Holm et al., A Cryptic Subgroup of Anopheles gambiae Is Highly Susceptible to Human Malaria Parasites, Science, vol.331, issue.6017, pp.596-598, 2011.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1196759

S. Rottschaefer, M. Riehle, B. Coulibaly, M. Sacko, O. Niare et al., Exceptional Diversity, Maintenance of Polymorphism, and Recent Directional Selection on the APL1 Malaria Resistance Genes of Anopheles gambiae, PLoS Biology, vol.5, issue.3, p.1000600, 2011.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000600.s006

B. White, M. Lawniczak, C. Cheng, M. Coulibaly, M. Wilson et al., Adaptive divergence between incipient species of Anopheles gambiae increases resistance to Plasmodium, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.108, issue.1, pp.244-249, 2011.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.1013648108

R. Fryxell, C. Nieman, A. Fofana, Y. Lee, S. Traore et al., Differential Plasmodium falciparum infection of Anopheles gambiae s.s. molecular and chromosomal forms in Mali, Malaria Journal, vol.11, issue.1, p.133, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/0035-9203(94)90204-6

M. Ndiath, C. Brengues, L. Konate, C. Sokhna, C. Boudin et al., Dynamics of transmission of Plasmodium falciparum by Anopheles arabiensis and the molecular forms M and S of Anopheles gambiae in Dielmo, Senegal, Malaria Journal, vol.7, issue.1, p.136, 2008.
DOI : 10.1186/1475-2875-7-136

C. Wondji, S. Frederic, V. Petrarca, J. Etang, F. Santolamazza et al., Species and Populations of the <I>Anopheles gambiae</I> Complex in Cameroon with Special Emphasis on Chromosomal and Molecular Forms of <I>Anopheles gambiae</I> s.s., Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.42, issue.6, pp.998-1005, 2005.
DOI : 10.1603/0022-2585(2005)042[0998:SAPOTA]2.0.CO;2

M. Ndiath, A. Cohuet, A. Gaye, L. Konate, C. Mazenot et al., Comparative susceptibility to Plasmodium falciparum of the molecular forms M and S of Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles arabiensis, Malaria Journal, vol.10, issue.1, p.269, 2011.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.1013648108

A. Boissiere, G. Gimonneau, M. Tchioffo, L. Abate, A. Bayibeki et al., Application of a qPCR Assay in the Investigation of Susceptibility to Malaria Infection of the M and S Molecular Forms of An. gambiae s.s. in Cameroon, PLoS ONE, vol.5, issue.1, p.54820, 2013.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0054820.t002

A. Stump, J. Shoener, C. Costantini, N. Sagnon, and N. Besansky, Sex-Linked Differentiation Between Incipient Species of Anopheles gambiae, Genetics, vol.169, issue.3, pp.1509-1519, 2005.
DOI : 10.1534/genetics.104.035303

A. Gneme, W. Guelbeogo, M. Riehle, A. Tiono, A. Diarra et al., Plasmodium species occurrence, temporal distribution and interaction in a child-aged population in rural Burkina Faso, Malaria Journal, vol.12, issue.1, p.67, 2013.
DOI : 10.1086/644781

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00795360

M. Manske, O. Miotto, S. Campino, S. Auburn, J. Almagro-garcia et al., Analysis of Plasmodium falciparum diversity in natural infections by deep sequencing, Nature, vol.487, issue.7407, pp.375-379, 2012.
DOI : 10.1186/1471-2164-13-1

S. Campino, S. Auburn, K. Kivinen, I. Zongo, J. Ouedraogo et al., Population Genetic Analysis of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites Using a Customized Illumina GoldenGate Genotyping Assay, PLoS ONE, vol.94, issue.6, p.20251, 2011.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0020251.s006

B. Okech, L. Gouagna, E. Kabiru, J. Beier, G. Yan et al., Influence of age and previous diet of Anopheles gambiae on the infectivity of natural Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes from human volunteers, Journal of Insect Science, vol.4, issue.1, p.33, 2004.
DOI : 10.1093/jis/4.1.33

T. Tchuinkam, B. Mulder, K. Dechering, H. Stoffels, J. Verhave et al., Experimental infections of Anopheles gambiae with Plasmodium falciparum of naturally infected gametocyte carriers in cameroon: factors influencing the infectivity to mosquitoes

M. Riehle, K. Markianos, O. Niare, J. Xu, J. Li et al., Natural Malaria Infection in Anopheles gambiae Is Regulated by a Single Genomic Control Region, Science, vol.312, issue.5773, pp.577-579, 2006.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1124153

O. Niare, K. Markianos, J. Volz, F. Oduol, A. Toure et al., Genetic Loci Affecting Resistance to Human Malaria Parasites in a West African Mosquito Vector Population, Science, vol.298, issue.5591, pp.213-216, 2002.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1073420

C. Fanello, F. Santolamazza, D. Torre, and A. , Simultaneous identification of species and molecular forms of the Anopheles gambiae complex by PCR-RFLP, Medical and Veterinary Entomology, vol.3, issue.4, pp.461-464, 2002.
DOI : 10.1046/j.0962-1075.2001.00306.x

F. Santolamazza, E. Mancini, F. Simard, Y. Qi, Z. Tu et al., Insertion polymorphisms of SINE200 retrotransposons within speciation islands of Anopheles gambiae molecular forms, Malaria Journal, vol.7, issue.1, p.163, 2008.
DOI : 10.1186/1475-2875-7-163

J. Pritchard, M. Stephens, and P. Donnelly, Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data, Genetics, vol.155, pp.945-959, 2000.

R. Fisher, Statistical methods for research workers, 1954.

T. Bousema, R. Dinglasan, I. Morlais, L. Gouagna, T. Van-warmerdam et al., Mosquito Feeding Assays to Determine the Infectiousness of Naturally Infected Plasmodium falciparum Gametocyte Carriers, PLoS ONE, vol.7, issue.8, p.42821, 2012.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0042821.t006

Y. Toure, O. Doumbo, A. Toure, M. Bagayoko, M. Diallo et al., Gametocyte infectivity by direct mosquito feeds in an area of seasonal malaria transmission: implications for bancoumana, mali as a transmission-blocking vaccine site, Am J Trop Med Hyg, vol.59, pp.481-486, 1998.

G. Medley, R. Sinden, S. Fleck, P. Billingsley, N. Tirawanchai et al., Heterogeneity in patterns of malarial oocyst infections in the mosquito vector, Parasitology, vol.45, issue.05, pp.441-449, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0035-9203(91)90012-N

C. Luna, X. Wang, Y. Huang, J. Zhang, and L. Zheng, Characterization of four Toll related genes during development and immune responses in Anopheles gambiae, Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, vol.32, issue.9, pp.1171-1179, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0965-1748(02)00053-X

D. Norris, A. Shurtleff, Y. Toure, and G. Lanzaro, s.s. (Diptera: Culicidae), Journal of Medical Entomology, vol.38, issue.2, pp.336-340, 2001.
DOI : 10.1603/0022-2585-38.2.336

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01439929

J. Santos, M. Pascual, P. Simoes, I. Fragata, M. Lima et al., From nature to the laboratory: the impact of founder effects on adaptation, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, vol.16, issue.12, pp.2607-2622, 2012.
DOI : 10.1111/jeb.12008

C. Mitri, J. Jacques, I. Thiery, M. Riehle, J. Xu et al., Fine Pathogen Discrimination within the APL1 Gene Family Protects Anopheles gambiae against Human and Rodent Malaria Species, PLoS Pathogens, vol.137, issue.9, p.1000576, 2009.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000576.s004

A. Mahande, F. Mosha, J. Mahande, and E. Kweka, Feeding and resting behaviour of malaria vector, Anopheles arabiensis with reference to zooprophylaxis, Malaria Journal, vol.6, issue.1, p.100, 2007.
DOI : 10.1186/1475-2875-6-100

. Gnémé, Equivalent susceptibility of Anopheles gambiae M and S molecular forms and Anopheles arabiensis to Plasmodium falciparum infection in Burkina Faso, Malaria Journal, vol.12, issue.1, p.204, 2013.
DOI : 10.1186/1475-2875-6-100